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“Those Who Paved the Way”: A Detailed Look into the Contributions of the USCT in Tennessee
This research paper discusses the significant yet often overlooked role of United States Colored Troops (USCT) in Tennessee during the American Civil War. As the Union Army faced manpower shortages due to heavy casualties, this led to the formation of USCT. Entirely composed of African American soldiers fighting for their freedom and the Union cause, these units were initially relegated to menial tasks, but through admirable efforts proved their capability in combat. In contrast, the Confederacy opposed arming Black individuals, fearing it would undermine their slave-based society. Despite the presence of approximately four million enslaved individuals in the South, the Confederacy’s refusal to employ them as combat soldiers limited their military potential. This paper looks to highlight the vital contribution of USCT to the Union’s success and the impact of their involvement in the war.
Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
The Mother of All Living: Eve’s Redemptive Role in John Milton’s Paradise Lost*
In this essay I argue that in Paradise Lost, Milton reframes traditionally misogynistic narratives of Eve. Milton does this by portraying Eve as a growing, dynamic woman seeking to “find herself” after her secondary creation from and for Adam. In hubris, Milton’s Eve desires wisdom and the autonomy it would afford. She does not want to be attached to Adam forever and longs to work, at least for a time, in solitude, not because she does not love her husband but because she wants to develop her own selfhood to contribute to her marriage and to the Garden’s labor. But following Satan’s temptation to eat the “forbidden fruit,” Milton’s Eve is repulsed at the separation between the prelapsarian and postlapsarian worlds, which has disrupted her marital union, and in despondence and desperation, she shares the fruit with Adam to bring about inclusion. Adam’s readiness to share in her sin and die with Eve brings attention to the identity Eve has already had—as woman, wife, mother of nature—and gives her the strength and wisdom to save Adam from suicide and lead them both to repentance and redemption. Although she eats the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge and shares it with her husband Adam, Milton’s Eve experiences the stages of “growing up” attributed to her innate humanity in God’s Paradisal Eden. *Winner of the Deans’ Distinguished Essay Award
Survival of the Tribe: How the Cherokee Nation Fought Genocide
The history of Indigenous Nations’ relationship to the United States colonial project and has long been a subject of extensive scholarly inquiry and community reflection. Among these nations, the Cherokee Nation stands out as one of the most frequently misunderstood. Utilizing an interview with Paul Douglas Matheny Jr. as a methodological framework, this study reveals that the narrative of the Cherokee Nation is far more complex than many scholars have suggested or, in some cases, explicitly argued. Drawing directly from Matheny’s testimony, this analysis traces the evolution of a coherent Cherokee identity across precolonial and postcolonial contexts. It demonstrates that the Cherokee Nation’s historical trajectory is better understood as a struggle to navigate and resist colonial power structures rather than a failure to assimilate into colonial society. This reinterpretation not only provides a more accurate scholarly depiction of Cherokee history but also has the potential to mitigate harm among Cherokee individuals who have experienced disconnection from their community over time.
“Outcast of All Outcasts”: The Doppelganger in Poe’s “William Wilson”
Edgar Allan Poe was influenced by the darker side of German idealism, which was in fashion in America during the early 19th century as a result of the emergence of the Transcendental movement. The genesis for Poe’s short story, “William Wilson,” comes from a sketch by Washington Irving. Poe enlarges the brief sketch into a story that focuses on the duality of humanity by use of the motif of the doppelganger, which was developed by Germanic writers who sought to explore duality in an individual. Critics have discussed the doppelganger in Poe’s short story “William Wilson,” but many have overlooked how the tradition of German idealism influenced Poe’s story. This essay explores Poe’s use of the traditional role of displacement, repetition, ego and alter-ego, and other aspects of the doppelganger as a theme of German idealism throughout “William Wilson.” Poe’s innovation in “William Wilson” is his depiction of the doppelganger, which Poe uses as a corrective force to the narrator’s evil. Incorporating the German tradition into a reading of “William Wilson” shows how Poe effectively uses the tradition to create a story that explores the duality of the human conscience.
How The Courts Affect Social Change Through Rent Control
This article explores the Supreme Court’s attitude toward one solution to the unaffordability of rental housing: rent control. This policy, more formally known as rent stabilization, allows jurisdictions to cap the amount landlords can charge for rent to curb exploitative practices. The policy is controversial, as some economists believe it is inefficient and ineffective at making housing more affordable. In contrast, others view it as a quick, easy, and relatively low-cost remedy to an ongoing crisis. The Supreme Court has upheld rent control laws, though not without exceptions, as this article outlines. These laws are drafted, debated, enacted, and implemented by other branches of government in cities and states. The Court generally steps aside to let the democratic process decide whether a city or state adopts or rejects this policy. This article argues that courts cannot affect social change regarding rent control because they are limited by the legislative process and their own judicial doctrines. Despite these constraints, the Supreme Court’s deference helps maintain these laws in cities where they have been enacted, thereby assisting many in affording their homes.
Off With Her Head! An Analysis of Female Awakening Through Social Deviance in Lynn Nottage’s Las Meninas
The Victorian Era brought the evolution of a distinctly feminine writing trope: the development of female characters’ personal awakenings through acts of social deviance. Kate Chopin’s The Awakening (1899) is a prime example of this phenomenon, wherein main character Edna Pontellier, disinterested in the expectations of upper-class French-Creole life, participates in an emotional affair to actualize her own autonomy. This essay seeks to determine the significance of this literary trope in contemporary playwright Lynn Nottage’s Las Meninas. The play follows the woes of French Queen Marie-Thérèse as she becomes dissatisfied with her position on the margins of French Courtly society and has an affair with another excluded person, Nabo, an African with dwarfism. Nottage’s parallel to the writings of Victorian female authors, like Chopin herself, emphasizes a desire to advocate for the advancement of women through the lens of Early Modern society. Additionally, the parallel reveals the continuity of the tradition of representing women’s recognition of their autonomy through deviant actions from nineteenth-century through twenty-first-century literature. The presence of this tradition in twenty-first century literature demonstrates that women are seeking similar social advancement in the present day.
A Fool’s Errand: Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus and the Parodic Use of Tragic Characterization in Early Elizabethan Drama*
Herein I argue that Christopher Marlowe’s revered Elizabethan drama The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus subverts the allegorical conventions of the Medieval morality play, recasting the everyman figure—the protagonist tempted by personifications of sin—in an ironic light. As the title implies, the learned doctor is cast ostensibly as a tragic hero, yet the character to appear onstage is far from heroic, and his inevitable demise comes across as more pathetic than tragic. Whereas the classical tragic hero embodies larger-than-life qualities ultimately undermined by a devastating flaw, Marlowe’s protagonist possesses no such grandeur. In Marlowe’s hands, Doctor Faustus becomes a buffoonish clown, a figure of public ridicule offered up to assuage the anxieties of the Elizabethan audience. Marlowe’s take on the Faust myth speaks just as loudly to the present age—an age fueled by relentless technological ambition often tinged with ethical indifference and heedless of unintended consequences.
Characteristics of the Structure and Selected Biological Activities of Polysaccharides Isolated from Fedora 17 Hemp (Cannabis sativa)*
This study focuses on characterizing the structural properties and biological activities of polysaccharides isolated from the Fedora 17 hemp (Cannabis sativa L.). Hemp polysaccharides are an underexplored resource with significant potential in industries such as biotechnology, agriculture, and medicine due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties. Techniques, including ion-exchange chromatography (IEX), size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), and fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), were employed to elucidate the molecular weight distribution and structural complexity of the polysaccharides. Additionally, antioxidant activity was assessed using the 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DDPH) assay. The findings contribute to a broader understanding of hemp polysaccharides’ potential applications in the development of sustainable and bioactive products.
Examining Processed Foods in Food Banks and the Presence of Chronic Diseases in Food Bank Clientele
Food insecurity affects millions of Americans and puts them at an increased risk of developing chronic disease. Food banks are essential in improving food access for this population. However, previous studies have identified gaps in the nutritional quality of items donated to food banks, thus decreasing clients’ access to nutritionally adequate food. The first part of this study examines the presence of chronic disease in food bank clientele by distributing a survey to clients in the waiting room of a local food bank. The second part assesses the nutritional quality of donated items based on their level of processing using the NOVA Food Classification tool. The study found that the majority of food bank clients had been diagnosed with a diet-related chronic disease and that slightly over half of donations were ultra-processed foods. This information can be used to form collaborative approaches between food bank staff, their clientele, community leaders, and donors to help improve access to nutritious food for those facing food insecurity.
The Purpose of Comparison Between Grendel, the Dragon, and the Hero in Beowulf*
In an effort to challenge assumptions that dilute these characters as mere antagonists of an ancient epic, this article analyzes the functions of two of the main monsters within Beowulf: Grendel and the dragon. By employing research ranging from historical to literary alongside close reading methodologies, readers can find parallels between the noble warrior, Beowulf, and his adversaries. Considering these parallels, guided by an understanding of societal virtues relevant to the early centuries of pagan Scandinavia, this piece determines whether these comparisons are deliberate measures on behalf of the Beowulf-poet to accentuate the hero’s righteous qualities. Through the personification of corruption and mirroring characteristics linking Beowulf and his opponents, the Beowulf-poet appears to illustrate the differences between an upstanding ruler and rapacious killer. By clarifying these foils, supported by historic reports related to the poem’s creation in ancient civilization, this article contends that the Beowulf monsters are measures for contextualizing the story and gleaning insight pertaining to bygone ideas of goodness and nobility. This paper finds that Beowulf’s adversaries serve as literary tools for his characterization and provide significant knowledge related to moral conventions of ancient societies for readers of the 21st century. *Winner of the Deans’ Distinguished Essay Award
Where “dead people lay like saints”: Gothic Modernism in Cormac McCarthy’s Child of God
This paper examines how Cormac McCarthy uses Gothic and Modernist modes in Child of God, a novel primarily known for its place in the Southern Gothic genre. In Gothic Modernism, writers blur traditional literary techniques—in the form of Gothic tropes or stylistic choices such as the framing narrative, unsettling landscapes, or depictions of madness—into Modernist techniques, using experimentation to evoke alienation or engage in social critique. I argue that Child of God, though published in 1973, is a Gothic Modernist text due to McCarthy’s stylistics, aesthetics, themes, and tropes. By looking at the novel through the lens of Gothic modernism, we better understand McCarthy’s reasoning, influences, and methodology for telling the story of Lester Ballard. For example, McCarthy depicts the grotesque, death, and decay in eerie settings suggesting isolation, alienation, disillusionment, and individualism, layering the novel with nuance and experimentation. By bridging gaps between genres, eras, and aesthetics, McCarthy challenges readers’ expectations of the novel form and how we are complicit in our communities. I use research from Gothic Modernist scholars such as John Riquelme and Charles Crow to support the argument that McCarthy, consciously or unconsciously, uses Gothic and Modernist tropes in his stylistic approach to the novel.
A Harm Reduction Approach: A Discussion of Supervised Consumption Sites to Address Opioid Use Disorder
The opioid epidemic, a pervasive public health crisis, demands innovative solutions to address its widespread impacts. In Tennessee, the reliance on abstinence-based interventions has resulted in high recidivism rates, highlighting the necessity for alternative strategies. This paper explores supervised consumption sites as a harm-reduction approach that prioritizes individual autonomy while addressing substance use disorders (SUD) comprehensively on micro, mezzo, and macro levels. Grounded in human behavioral theories, the analysis examines systemic contributors to opioid use disorder (OUD), including familial dynamics, societal stigma, and cultural influences. By integrating evidence-based practices, supervised consumption sites are shown to effectively reduce overdose fatalities, enhance access to healthcare services, and strengthen community resilience. The discussion also emphasizes the intersectionality of discrimination, illustrating how marginalized populations disproportionately experience the adverse effects of OUD due to systemic inequities. Through policy analysis and cost evaluations, the findings support the economic and social benefits of harm-reduction measures. This paper advocates for the implementation of supervised consumption sites as a transformative intervention, shifting the paradigm from punitive and stigmatizing practices to inclusive and compassionate care.
From Anomie to Metanoia: The Spiritual-Political Thought of Henry Thoreau & Thomas Merton
Both Henry David Thoreau and Thomas Merton revolted against the state of society as they saw it and lived in it. They retired to their respective wildernesses to seek solitude and dive deep for truth. Merton and Thoreau were not content with a solitude that did not also involve a meaningful relationship to society. They were concerned with social justice and communicated that through their writing, which, it seems, came about because of their solitude. In that way, each author encourages his readers to build their own inner retreats, and in the end, they do this as a means of furthering social reform in their times. For both men, a relationship to God––or to nature, to cosmic divinity––is cultivated within. Furthermore, once the individual’s relationship to this higher power has been established, this leads to a recognition of the divinity in others. Both Merton and Thoreau, from their respective hermitages, reached inward––only to find themselves also reaching outward. Both Thoreau and Merton offer a vision of solitude and silence that goes hand in hand with social justice and political action.
The Ramifications of Female Sexuality: Cultural Uncertainty, Domestic Confinement, and Threatened Patriarchy in Robert Frost’s “Two Witches”
During World War I, American women entered the workforce in greater numbers than ever before. However, once their husbands or other family members returned home, women in the workplace were forced out of their jobs in order to support more traditional gender roles. These “New Women” were, for the most part, college-educated, empowered in their sexuality, and had higher aspirations than being a stay-at-home wife and mother. Robert Frost’s 1920 poem “Two Witches” explores what forced domesticity did to New Women mentally, physically, and sexually. The narrative poem is split into two sections, “The Witch of Coös” and “The Pauper Witch of Grafton,” and while progressive in its social politics, the poems still confine their protagonists and reaffirm the tradition of American patriarchy.
From the Waves to the Shore: The Deliberate Odds and Ends of Mansfield’s Garden Parties
Katherine Mansfield, a New Zealand modernist writer, demonstrates the power of indirect methods to create meaning in many of her short stories. Rather than relying on detailed character backgrounds, Mansfield uses figurative language, silences, and the implications within dialogue to convey emotional depth and insight into her characters. While these techniques are crucial in building the narrative, her use of suspense and the withholding of information until the story’s conclusion also play a key role in her storytelling. Through a close reading of stories such as “Miss Brill,” “The Voyage,” and “The Singing Lesson,” it becomes clear how Mansfield’s revelatory endings—what I refer to as “wave moments”—serve as deliberate shifts in mood that contribute to the meaning-making process. These “wave moments” highlight Mansfield’s non-linear storytelling approach and her careful crafting of stories—defying traditional narrative expectations.
It is an honor to return as editor of Scientia et Humanitas for the second consecutive year. This journey has proven to be exceptionally rewarding, and I am delighted to unveil the largest volume in the journal’s history. Serendipitously, Volume Fifteen features exactly fifteen articles, each reflecting the richness and diversity of the contemporary interdisciplinary research conducted at Middle Tennessee State University. The volume opens with Emiliya Mailyan’s article, “From Waves: The Deliberate Odds and Ends of Mansfield’s Garden Parties,” in which Mailyan analyzes Katherine Mansfield’s intricate narrative techniques. Landon Funk then offers “The Ramifications of Female Sexuality: Cultural Uncertainty, Domestic Confinement, and Threatened Patriarchy in Robert Frost’s ‘Two Witches,’” in which she discusses Robert Frost’s complex place in the patriarchal trajectory of American history. Evan Knutila’s genre-bending piece, “From Anomie to Metanoia: The Spiritual-Political Thought of Henry Thoreau and Thomas Merton,” takes an inward turn, reflecting on Thoreau and Merton’s understanding of solitude as a means to discover the inner dimension of divinity. We shift our emphasis to contemporary social sciences in Elaina Manuel’s “A Harm Reduction Approach: A Discussion of Supervised Consumption Site to Address Opioid Use Disorder” in which Manuel advocates for the establishment of supervised consumption sites as a vital intervention for opioid use disorder. Harley Mercadal provides a literary reading of Cormac McCarthy in “Where ‘dead people lay like saints’: Gothic Modernism in Cormac McCarthy’s Child of God,” making a case for the author as an expression of Gothic Modernism. In “The Purpose of Comparison Between Grendel, the Dragon, and the Hero in Beowulf” Miles Wine examines the monsters of Beowulf as reflections of moral conventions in archaic England. Returning us to social science, Elizabeth Counts and Dr. Elizabeth Smith examine the relationship between processed foods and chronic diseases among food bank clientele in “Examining Processed Foods in Food Banks and the Presence of Chronic Diseases in Food Bank Clientele.” Rashieq Cockerham brings us into the natural sciences in “Characteristics of the Structure and Selected Biological Activities of Polysaccharides Isolated from Fedora 17 Hemp (Cannabis sativa),” investigating the use of hemp polysaccharides as potential applications in developing sustainable, bioactive products. Matthew Hutton’s article, “A Fool’s Errand: Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus and the Parodic Use of Tragic Characterization in Early Elizabethan Drama,” challenges the conventional reading of Marlowe’s play, interpreting Doctor Faustus as a parody of the title character. Feminist theory informs Mavis Wolff’s piece, “Off with Her Head! An Analysis of Female Awakening Through Social Deviance in Lynn Nottage’s Las Meninas,” considering Queen Thérèse as an expression of female empowerment. The last movement of the volume showcases its interdisciplinary component. In “How the Courts Affect Social Change Through Rent Control,” Alexander Garcia examines cultural mores through a social science lens, arguing that the courts are limited by the judicial system’s constraints. Brandon Black’s literary analysis “Outcast of All Outcasts: The Doppelganger in Poe’s ‘William Wilson’” discusses Poe’s use of the doppelganger archetype. Nethanial Belmont reconsiders the American historical narrative in “Survival of the Tribe: How the Cherokee Nation Fought Genocide,” reframing the history the Cherokee through firsthand interviews and accounts. Angela Benninghoff discusses Milton’s characterization of the Biblical Eve in “The Mother of All Living: Eve’s Redemptive Role in John Milton’s Paradise Lost. Finally, Patrick Wells highlights the frequently overlooked contributions of the United States Colored Troops during the Civil War in “Those Who Paved the Way: A Detailed Look into the Contributions of the USCT in Tennessee.” I wish to express my sincere gratitude to our diligent reviewers, Briley Welch, Hannah Antrican, and Eilidh Hancock, whose thorough evaluations and constructive feedback have significantly enhanced the quality of the journal. Additionally, I would like to extend my appreciation to my associate editors, Rebecca Price, Nicholas Krause, Angela Benninghoff, and Brittney Norton, for their unwavering commitment and hard work. Your dedication to fostering innovative scholarship has been commendable and has substantially contributed to the success of this volume. Notably, I wish to acknowledge my managing editor, Matthew Hutton, whose expertise and efforts have ensured that this volume is not only polished but also impactful. I would also like to extend my sincerest thanks to Dr. Philip Phillips, Associate Dean of the MTSU Honors College, not only for the opportunity and help with this volume of Scientia, but also for the continued mentorship he has offered throughout my graduate career. An exceptional amount of thanks is also due to Honors College Dean John R. Vile and Strategic Communication Specialist Ms. Robin E. Lee, both of whom extended significant guidance. Thank you all for your continued support of Scientia et Humanitas. I hope you enjoy this volume as much as we enjoyed bringing it to fruition. Best regards, Kylie Petrovich Editor in Chief
Evaluating Chlorine Dioxide Gas as an Antiviral Agent: Insights from the Development, Optimization, and Application of a MS2 Bacteriophage Model System
Since emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, the etiological agent causing COVID-19, the need to identify antiviral agents for disinfection purposes has dramatically increased. Chlorine dioxide gas has previously been identified as an antibacterial agent with strong oxidizing capabilities. Additionally, the MS2 bacteriophage was identified as a suitable surrogate for the development, evaluation, and application of virucide decontamination methods. The purpose of this study was to identify and assess the antiviral properties of chlorine dioxide gas and to identify optimum physical conditions for potential deployment in support of current antiviral disinfection needs. Using the MS2 bacteriophage model system, studies used the double-layer agar plaque assay technique to design, optimize, and evaluate the antiviral activity of chlorine dioxide gas. Results support the potential use of chlorine dioxide gas as an antiviral agent and show that environmental factors heavily influence the ability of chlorine dioxide gas to act as an antiviral agent. (1925), commenting particularly on those practices’ impact on the internal worlds of Clarissa Dalloway and Septimus Smith.
Copyright (c) 2024 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Stopping the Willow Project on Social Media: An Exploration of the Social Problems Process in a Sub-Environmental Issue
The Social Problems Process (SPP), a sociological theoretical model, encompasses an in-depth examination of the stages a social problem (SP) passes through to achieve remediation. This project aims to explore the SPP of the environmental sub-SP of fossil fuel continuation as demonstrated by the Willow Project (WP), an accepted policy that allows for intensive oil drilling in environmentally vulnerable landscapes, contributing to exacerbated climate conditions. The aim of this exploration is to better understand the SPP in contemporary SPs and role of social media. The present study uses qualitative content analysis, emphasizing frequency and themes, of WP-related Instagram posts. A total of forty-four posts were collected and analyzed across two account categories: activist/educational (n=5) and news/informative (n=5). Approximately 86% of the analyzed posts were collected from the activist/education account category (n=38) with primary themes of taking action and animal/environmental consequences. Contrastingly, the news/informative account category produced minimal coverage prioritizing contextual information. These findings support the WP sub-SP passing through the initial three stages of the SPP: claims making, media coverage, and public reaction. This work contributes to filling in the gaps of literature exploring SPs within social media with an acute focus on the connections between environmental SPs, public perception, and youth.
This policy paper addresses the progress and setbacks in the struggle for LGBTQ rights in the United States, advocating for the passage of the Equality Act as an essential legal safeguard. Despite notable advancements, LGBTQ Americans continue to encounter systemic and interpersonal discrimination, particularly in employment, housing, and public spaces. Such discrimination is often entrenched in heterosexist and transphobic ideologies, creating pervasive inequities and mental health disparities. The Equality Act is presented as a critical response to these challenges, proposing comprehensive protections that would prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. By ensuring equal treatment in all facets of life, the Equality Act would support the mental and emotional health of LGBTQ individuals and symbolize a national commitment to equal rights. Its enactment would represent a milestone in the movement toward full civil rights for LGBTQ Americans, reflecting the country’s dedication to the principles of liberty and justice for all.
Vampires, Werewolves, and the Racialized Other
The Twilight series by Stephanie Meyer captured the attention of millions when the first book was released in 2005. The series has long been criticized for an array of issues, but this essay analyzes the representation of race within the books and how Meyer contributes to Othering, particularly racial Othering. The paper begins with an introduction to Othering and the different ways in which the process unfolds and then goes into an exploration of Othering in the fantasy genre, particularly in low fantasy, before shifting into the main focus of the essay of racial Othering within the Twilight series. This article combines previous scholarship on the topic with literary analysis to argue that Othering within the Twilight series contributes to racial Othering in the real world. As a solution, fantasy authors should strive for belongingness in their stories so that, in the real world, society is one step closer to achieving it.
Maisie’s Moral Sense: Aestheticism in What Maisie Knew
Despite being born American and being considered a major American author, Henry James spent the majority of his adult life in England, becoming a British citizen a year before his death. James lived in England during the fin-de-siècle–the end of the nineteenth century– a period when art and literature were at their height in upper-class London. The fin-de-siècle was also the height of the aesthetic movement–one in which James participated. Another author at the pinnacle of his career in the fin-de-siècle and a leader within aestheticism was Oscar Wilde. Though they ran in the same circles and shared similar beliefs, James and Wilde were not close friends. James thought Wilde was too flamboyant and likely felt ill feelings towards Wilde since he was a successful dramatist and James–despite his best efforts–failed in this genre. In this article, I will examine the ways in which both James and Wilde approached aestheticism and how James’s background as an American influenced his views of this idea. Although Wilde did spend time in America–albeit significantly less than James spent in England–Wilde remained overtly British in his mannerisms and opinions. While aestheticism is primarily a British ideology, this paper will discuss the ways that James and his role as an American influenced this movement.
Poe’s Art of Seduction: Montresor as Author in “The Cask of Amontillado”
Herein I argue that the character Montresor, the narrator and protagonist of “The Cask of Amontillado,” serves as Poe’s fictional illustration of an author engaged in the creative process. Montresor, in his actions and in his recounting of them, executes a “plot” that puts Poe’s theory of “unity of effect” to the test. Montresor seduces Fortunato just as Poe seduces the reader: through verbal craft. His intent is to induce terror, and the measure of his success is the measure of the degree to which he achieves maximum effect. Montresor’s plan, his execution, and his delivery of the tale all exemplify the principles Poe outlines in “The Philosophy of Composition”—an essay published just months before “The Cask of Amontillado.” In the first section of the paper, I trace Poe’s development of the unity of effect theory in the years leading up to the publishing of “The Philosophy of Composition.” I then apply the theory to a close reading of “Amontillado.” In the final section, I discuss the tacit contract between author and reader required for Poe’s brand of horror. In observing the correlation between Poe’s conception of the author and his fictional illustration of the author, we see how Poe sets the preconditions for 20th-Century genre fiction by placing the audience in the foreground—an emphasis that would find full flower in the age of mass media, when the distinction between “art” and “entertainment” would become immaterial.
Powerful Words: Wealhtheow’s Use of Imperatives in Beowulf
How powerful were the women in Old English poetry, particularly in the well-known poem Beowulf? There are few female characters within the poem, and only one of them has a speaking role. Wealhtheow, queen of the Scyldings, is a peace-weaving wife to Hrothgar, one of the primary characters alongside Beowulf. Discussions of the specifics of her role as peace-weaver between her home nation and that of Hrothgar are mired in gender role assumptions on the parts of critics throughout the ages. Some have viewed this title as one denoting property: Wealhtheow is traded to Hrothgar as a gift to create peace between nations. Others acknowledge that peace-weaving is more of an active position, wherein Wealhtheow is a diplomat between nations, weaving peace herself. I argue that her power as a leader is best exemplified by her use of the imperative case. By examining the frequency of this case and the choice of imperative verbs within Wealhtheow’s speeches, I demonstrate that she issues commands more often than any other speaker, often with long-standing expectations on those to whom she speaks.
The Edge of the World: An Exploration of the Fringes of the Psalter World Map*
Medieval mappaemundi are richly complex images that hold within them clues to improve understanding of the medieval psyche concerning the natural world and the place of medieval cultures within it. In my exploration of the Psalter World Map, I provide a brief historical context for the psalter in which this map resides, including information on its creation and provenance. I then examine aspects of the fringes of the map to display the liminality of two specific images: the winds surrounding the Earth and the fourteen “otherworldly creatures” positioned across the Nile River on the bottom right-hand corner of the Earth. In doing so, I argue that medieval people were acutely aware of their place in the world, that they recognized their own human, transformative state, and that they utilized the edges of mappaemundi as a safe and controlled environment to explore and better understand their anxieties about the world and their place within it.
Finding Mind: A Defense of Embodied Cognition in the Classroom
Recent empirical research offers compelling evidence in favor of incorporating principles of embodiment in the classroom. While engaging the body for the sake of learning has become more accepted for younger learners, embodiment is largely neglected for the teaching of more abstract concepts, including ones related to language acquisition — despite strong evidence that principles of embodiment can help adult learners with abstract ideas as well. This essay will define embodied cognition, contextualize the ways that the American school system has largely adopted “disembodied” and representationalist approaches to cognition, and provide a selection of empirical evidence in favor of adopting embodied principles in classrooms. The final sections of the essay will offer some strategies for adopting these principles in college-level humanities courses and provide some speculation in favor of the philosophical importance of doing so.
Say ‘Ahhh!’: Looking into Open Educational Resources at Middle Tennessee State University
This essay delves into the role and potential future impact of Open Education Resources (OER) at Middle Tennessee State University (MTSU) amidst the changing landscape of U.S. higher education. The discussion highlights national examples of engagement with OER, emphasizing its importance in creating accessible and equitable educational experiences. This sheds light on the practicalities of OER projects at MTSU and suggests ideas for institutional change. The author uses an ecological framework to examine how OER integrates within the educational ecosystem, emphasizing the need for robust support structures for sustainability. The advantages of OER are also addressed, such as cost reduction and more customized teaching materials, while acknowledging challenges like maintaining resource quality. Tennessee, MTSU, and the local student body would benefit from stronger institutional and statewide commitments to supporting OER, an initiative that is crucial to making education more inclusive and responsive to future needs, thus contributing to a more equitable learning environment.
Scientia et Humanitas incorporates a diverse range of interdisciplinary work, and the incorporation of research from different disciplines is a hallmark of the journal. Despite these seemingly disparate disciplines, all of the research herein is underpinned by the same sentiments: concerns with the human condition and human connection. The journal provides graduate and undergraduate scholars from a diverse range of fields with the opportunity to publish their research and, as evidenced by the works in this volume, showcase the myriad ways in which research navigates the human condition. The sequence of the works in this volume of Scientia is loosely based on individual disciplines. The first two pieces embrace themes of pedagogy and how instructors and students can better engage in and outside of the classroom. In “Say ‘Ahhh!’: Looking into Open Educational Resources at Middle Tennessee State University,” Caroline LaPlue examines the significance, creation, and challenges of Open Educational Resources. Thereafter, Nicholas Krause explores embodied cognition in his piece, “Finding the Mind: A Defense of Embodied Cognition in the Classroom,” throughout which he recognizes the importance of acknowledging the physical body inside the classroom environment. The humanities are on display in the next five articles. Rebecca Price’s “The Edge of the World: An Exploration of the Fringes of the Psalter World Map,” transports us to medieval times and investigates how medieval people navigated their environments and relationships through the use of mappaemundi. We remain in the medieval realm throughout Kat Kolby’s piece, “Powerful Words: Wealhtheow’s Use of Imperatives in Beowulf.” Ms. Kolby adopts an innovative argument in which she delves into the importance of the female character Wealhtheow and her impact on other characters in the Old English epic poem Beowulf. As we chronologically make our way forward, we find ourselves beguiled by Matthew Hutton’s article “Poe’s Art of Seduction: Montresor as Author in “The Cask of Amontillado.” Mr. Hutton scrutinizes the correlation between Edgar Allan Poe’s conception of the author, theory of unity of effect, and his fictional work, while recognizing the importance of the reader as well. In, “Maisie’s Moral Sense: Aestheticism in What Maisie Knew,” Rebekah Lawler invites us to consider Henry James’ novel, What Maisie Knew, as an aesthetic text by drawing comparisons between Henry James and Oscar Wilde, a leader of the aesthetic movement. Ms. Lawler also traverses questions of morality amongst the aesthetic movement. Remaining in the humanities, yet taking a turn toward popular culture, readers will be delighted to engage with Briley Welch’s article, “Vampires, Werewolves, and the Racialized Other,” in which she analyzes the lack of racial representation in Stephanie Meyers’ Twilight series. Our journey continues as we reach the social sciences in the next two articles.Scott Coble’s “LGBTQ Rights Policy Analysis” implores us to recognize the struggles that LGBTQ Americans face daily and focuses on the crucial enactment of the Equality Act. Sophia Roberts tackles the environmental repercussions of The Willow Project and its engagement with social media in her article, “Stopping the Willow Project on Social Media: An Exploration of the Social Problems Process in a Sub-Environmental Issue.” The culminating work in the volume is from the natural sciences. In Hunter Brady’s article, “Evaluating Chlorine Dioxide Gas as an Antiviral Agent: Insights from the Development, Optimization, and Application of a MS2 Bacteriophage Model System,” he researches chlorine dioxide gas and its effectiveness as an antiviral agent in a post-COVID era, proving that even the most scientific of pieces in the volume acknowledges the underlying theme of humanity. At Scientia et Humanitas, we understand the critical importance of peer review and rigorous revision in maintaining the integrity and quality of academic research. Each submission underwent a double-blind peer review process, during which authors were given feedback, helping to refine their ideas and enhance the clarity and coherence of their research. The peer review process offers invaluable learning opportunities for both authors and reviewers, fostering a culture of continuous improvement. It is not only the pieces in this volume that embody the motif of human connection; the process of creating the volume itself is also an exercise in human relations. I am honored to have been selected as the Editor-in-Chief for this edition of Scientia. I would like to extend my sincerest thanks to Dr. Philip Phillips, Associate Dean of the MTSU Honors College, not only for the opportunity and help with this volume of Scientia, but also for his continued mentorship throughout my graduate career. A tremendous amount of thanks is also due to Honors College Dean John R. Vile and Strategic Communication Specialist Ms. Robin E. Lee, both of whom extended invaluable advice. This volume of Scientia would not have been possible without the extraordinary efforts of the editorial team. I could not have asked for a better staff of reviewers and associate editors, all of whom dedicated themselves to patient reading, considerate feedback, and thoughtful recommendation of the articles featured in this volume. I wish to extend an enormous amount of gratitude to Brittney Norton, Kat Kolby, Rebekah Lawler, Angela Benninghoff, Rebecca Price, Matthew Hutton, Briley Welch, Hannah Antrican, Eilidh Hancock, and Courtney Martin. Your dedication to advancing interdisciplinary scholarship and upholding the principles of Scientia et Humanitas is truly commendable, and it is an honor to have been part of such a dynamic team. Each member of the editorial team made me a better editor by offering their wisdom and expertise. I invite you to explore the rich tapestry of interdisciplinary research featured in Volume 14 of Scientia et Humanitas and join us in celebrating the inspiring nature of the works showcased here. Kylie Petrovich Editor in Chief
The Retrieving Memories of Gandhi’s Peacemission: Noakhali Riots 1946, East Pakistan
In 1946, Gandhi visited the Noakhali district in Eastern Bengal (now Bangladesh) to bridge the communal rift of the Hindu-Muslim communities just before the British Empire divided the subcontinent into two new countries: India and Pakistan. This sojourn is almost forgotten now, and no concrete attempt has been made to study Gandhi’s peace-mission in a Muslim majority area from a historical perspective of Hindu-Muslim relationship as Gandhi would have wanted. This article attempts to understand Gandhi from the perspective of Muslims who saw him and how they subsequently remember him. Therefore, the article explores how Muslim people recollect Gandhi’s visit and his ideas as a relevant way to make harmonious relations between antagonistic communities. The aim of this article is to recall Gandhi and, through recollecting him, create a reflective mindset that underscores the communal harmony embedded into core values of an equal and harmonious society. Through their neglect, the partition historians have safely buried Gandhi’s chapter in Noakhali, but historians could potentially use this “peacemission” of dealing with communities torn apart by riots. Therefore, it can be safely stressed that to have a just society in South Asia and to learn from past errors, then memories of Gandhi’s visit must be remembered collectively as a mode of returning to the past and reshaping the present through memories of the adults who witnessed it and passed it down to their descendants.
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Closures, Masks, and Quarantines: Historiography of Social Distancing and Preventative Measures During the 1918 Influenza Pandemic in the U.S.
An oft-forgotten footnote to World War I, the novel and virulent strain of influenza that swept through the U.S. and around the globe swiftly in fall 1918 has received more recent attention due to late twentieth- and early twentyfirst-century emerging diseases and the centennial anniversary. While the COVID-19 pandemic just over one hundred years later will likely now spark even more historical interest, this historiographical paper addresses how recent scholars treated what social measures U.S. cities and communities took to help slow the spread of the Great Influenza and how historians interpreted acceptance and effectiveness of public health mandates. Scholars have shown how officials missed warning signs or failed to act with enough urgency to stop or even to slow the virus early, yet still probably saved lives by taking eventual precautions. Some newer studies also have started to fill the gap in how marginalized communities like African Americans and Indigenous peoples were affected, as well as spotlighted smaller towns and various regions. With parallels to COVID-19, historians will have plenty of opportunity to compare contemporary actions (and inactions) to the 1918 public health responses, along with acceptance, resistance, and effectiveness.
Integration and Education: The Search for Identity Post-Civil War
Prior to the Civil War, American identity was grounded in community, hard work, and a connection to the land. One woke up, did what one had to do, and kissed one’s family before bed. Within literature, life was simple and idealistic— full of romanticization of the land and of its people. Following the Civil War, everything began to change. Between mass industrialization and urbanization, to an increase in immigration and the assimilation of former slaves into society, the world was different, and the definition of what it meant to be an American had to adjust. Through an examination of the literature of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, such as Constance Fenimore Woolson’s “Rodman the Keeper” and W.E.B. DuBois’s rhetorical The Souls of Black Folk, the definition of American identity shifted to represent New England perspectives on traumatized Southern lands as well as proposed solutions to postemancipation integration. Writers of fiction and non-fiction alike examined the ways in which the trauma of the Civil War and slavery impacted national identity, often in problematic ways that erased disadvantaged or traumatized perspectives in favor of elitist, privileged views.